The Domain of Design

The domain of instructional design is the core of instructional technology and the instructional systems design process (Glaser, 1976). The other domains of development, management, utilization, and evaluation are all secondary to the domain of design. For instance, contractors or professionals from other fields can be relied upon to develop or evaluate, but design is something unique to instructional technology and is essential for a successful project. It provides the foundation and unifies all other domains.

The domain of design is comprised of two distinct and separate phases: the analysis phase and the design phase. The purpose of the former is to identify the problem and gather relevant information. During this phase the instructional designer or instructional design team uses the tools of front-end analysis and needs assessment. Typically data from surveys, focus groups, observations and interviews, as well as existing records or extant data, is used to build a report that clearly defines the problem and states the findings.  These findings (Learner characteristics, goal analysis) become the evidence or premise for the decisions made later in the design phase.

The basic purpose of the design phase is to plan the instructional intervention. Using the data from the initial analysis phase the instructional designer conducts goal or task analysis to identify subtasks and subordinate tasks before writing objectives, making assessment and instructional strategy decisions.  During the design phase the instructional designer applies various theories and models to guide his/her instructional decisions.  The result of this phase is a plan or blueprint for the instruction.

The instructional design domain is divided into four sub-domains: instructional systems design, message design, instructional strategies, and the learner characteristics.

Instructional systems design

Instructional systems design (ISD) is a problem-solving approach for the systematic and systemic design of the entire instructional technology process. The method is systematic because it is structured to be conducted in a logical manner. This ensures the resulting products are sound and repeatable. The results are 'engineered' rather than 'by accident'(Clark 2008, p.10). The method is systemic because it defines process as a system with several interconnecting components. All components interact dynamically in which the outcome of each component impacts on the results of other phases or components. Following a method allows the IT team to engage in a recursive process that reliably produces quality products.

Although Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE) are identified as generic processes of designing instruction, instructional designers can choose from a number of more detailed process models. Dick, Carey and Carey (2005), Seels and Glasgow (1998) and Morrison, Kemp and Ross (2007) are the most prominent instructional design process models. Each of these design models is a reflection of the builders' perspective on how design activities are conducted.  However, a good practitioner follows the common elements of all models that are found in the generic ISD process ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation).

At each step in the ADDIE process, the practitioner uses various theories, principles, tools and techniques to make logical decisions which affect the finished product.

The most important part of the analysis phase is to define the problem. Several techniques are used for this purpose, including: learner analysis, context / environmental analysis, task/goal analysis, and needs assessment. Many instructional designers use Allison Rossett's training needs assessment (1987) and Dick and Carrey's ISD model (2005) as the theoretical foundation for their actions during this phase.

The product of the analysis phase is the front end analysis report . The purpose of a front-end analysis report  is to clearly define the problem as a gap between the actual performance and the optimal performance.  It also reports the results of the many different analyses undertaken.  The scope of this report can be at micro- (lesson or a module) or macro-(curriculum or organization) level . On the basis of front-end analysis, multiple solutions are analyzed, and the best solutions recommended.

Using the conclusions and premises reported in the front end analysis, the instructional designer writes goals and objectives, assessment strategies and instructional methods. It is the designers’ instructional philosophy and  pedagogical theory that guides the many decisions made in the design phase. Some of these theories include Bloom's taxonomy of learning and Gagne's conditions of learning theory. In addition, instructional designers use learning theories such as behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism to guide them in selecting instructional design theories and models for their practice. The designer's own epistemology regarding learning and instructional theories, as well as the results of the front-end analysis, determines the instructional strategies that are eventually selected  for the instruction.

In summary, as Reigeluth emphasises instructional-design theory "is design-oriented, offering guidelines about what methods to use in what situations." (Reigeluth 1999, p.27)

Message design

Grabowski defines message design as “planning for the manipulation of the physical form of the message.” (1991, p.206)  Message design is closely related to graphic arts and visual two-dimensional design. It is creating the look and feel of the actual products to be viewed by the learner. Depending on the context and learning goals, the media could be printed textbook, handouts, signage or posters, or in a digital format, such as a web page, video, or film.  The principles of message design differ according to medium and learning task (Seels & Richey, 1994).  For example, the message design is very different for video instruction intended for youth, as opposed to a technical handbook intended for professional adults.

The theoretical framework for message design is researched by Richard Mayer (2001) and Linda Lohr (2004).   They focus on visual design elements that reduce extraneous cognitive load (as theorized by Mayer in the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning) and promote retention of material by the learner. These theories provide the foundation and reasons for decisions made in message design.

Instructional strategies

 "Instructional strategies are specifications for selecting and sequencing events and activities within a lesson." (Seels & Richey, 1994, p.31) A common instructional strategy is Gagne’s (1965) conditions for learning theory. It provides guidelines and prescribes specific strategies for various types of learning outcomes. According to Conditions for Learning theory, different learning outcomes require different internal and external conditions.  Internal conditions refer to the learner's attitude, motivation, or engagement.  External conditions refer to environmental and instructional events.

Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction:

• 1.Gain attention;
• 2.Inform learners of objectives;
• 3.Stimulate recall of prior learning ;
• 4.Present the content;
• 5.Provide learning guidance ;
• 6.Elicit the performance ;
• 7.Provide feedback;
• 8.Assess the performance;
• 9.Enhance retention and transfer.

Instructional strategies cover a wide range of activities including methods of delivery, sequencing and grouping of content, describing learning activities, and establishing student grouping (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005). Gagne’s 'nine events of instruction' is a strategy for sequencing content and activities.  Each step requires a more specific strategy. For instance, "assess the performance" may use a multiple-choice test as a strategy. The appropriateness of each strategy is judged by the instructional designer. The designer may use further theories to help determine strategies. Keller's ARCS theory (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction), for instance, may be used to determine strategies for step one "gain attention".

These strategies, which are based on educational research and theory, form the overall activities and events of the instruction. It is the instructional designer's job to choose the appropriate strategies for the desired outcome and situation.   The differences in the situation or goal are identified in detail in the design phase. 

Learner characteristics

"Learner characteristics are those facets of the learner's experience or background that impact the effectiveness of the learning process." (Seels & Richey, 1994)

 This sub-domain identifies variables and characteristics of the learner that may impact instructional design decisions. The learner’s current skills, learning preferences, and existing attitudes are crucial information that shape several steps in the instructional design process(Dick, Carey, & Carey 2005). The characteristics of learners include:  “(1) entry behaviors, (2) prior knowledge of the topic area, (3) learner attitudes toward content and the potential delivery system, (4) academic motivation, (5) educational and ability levels, (6) general learning preferences, (7) attitudes toward organization providing the training and (8) group characteristics” (Dick, Carey, & Carey 2005; page 101).

The instructional designer collects information about these characteristics by conducting interviews, observations, and surveys of a representative sample of the learner population. A report is generated which details each characteristic category, the data source, and a summary of the findings.

Well-defined learner characteristics can assist the instructional designer with all other parts of the design domain.  Structural strategies, message design and instructional systems design are all impacted by learner characteristics. All sub-domains of the design domain must align with the learner as described by the systematic investigation of learner characteristics.